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Wolves are fur-bearing mammals that are native to North America. They are the wild ancestors of all domesticated dogs and the largest non-domestic member of the canine (Canidae) family in the northern hemisphere¹ ². There are an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 wolves in Canada, with four wolf subspecies, currently occupying 80% of their native Canadian range³. The subspecies are³: 

• The grey wolf (Canis lupus occidentalis). The grey wolf is present in all three Canadian territories and all provinces except New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.  The grey wolf is classified as 'Not At Risk/Secure' under the Canadian Wildlife Species at Risk Act⁴. 
• The Great Plains wolf (Canis lupus nubilus). A subspecies of the grey wolf which once extended throughout the Great Plains (southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan down to northern Texas)⁵. The Great Plains wolf went extinct in 1926⁵. 
• The Arctic wolf (C. lupus arctos). The Arctic wolf is located in the arctic regions of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The Arctic wolf is classified as 'Data Deficient' under the Canadian Wildlife Species at Risk Act⁴. 
• The eastern wolf (C. lupus lycaon). The eastern wolf, which is thought to be a ‘hybrid’ of a grey wolf and coyote, is located in the southern regions of Ontario and Quebec⁴. The eastern wolf is classified as 'Threatened' under the Canadian Wildlife Species at Risk Act⁴.

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There is also the coastal sea wolf found in British Columbia. Although the sea wolf is not formally designated as its own subspecies, it is a unique wolf found only in the Great Bear Rainforest and west coast island habitats. These wolves are unique due to their adaptation to coastal environments where their diet includes marine life and their ability to swim long distances from island to island off the coast of British Columbia⁶. In fact, they are so acclimatized to coastal climates that they are also known as marine wolves⁶. 

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The grey wolf has a narrow chest, long body, and large feet⁷. Wolves have long (1 to 2 feet in length) bushy tails with tips that are often black and eyes that  are typically amber, brown or yellow¹. Grey wolves are 3 to 5 feet long (91 to 152 cm) and 2.6 to 2.8 feet (80 to 85 cm) high at the shoulder¹ ⁸ ⁹. Female grey wolves weigh between 60 to 100 lbs (27 to 45 kg) and males weigh between 70 to 145 pounds (32 to 66 kg)¹. The colours of a wolf coat varies with hues ranging from white to brown to black. The most common colour phases of grey wolves are grey and black, while eastern wolves are typically grey and Arctic wolves are typically white¹⁰. 

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With long legs, wide feet, narrow bodies, and keen senses, wolves are built to travel. In a hunt, they can reach a top speed of nearly 97 km or 40 miles per hour, but their typical pace is about 8 km or 5 miles per hour, and can travel up to 80 km or 50 miles per day¹¹. When searching for a mate or new territory, a wolf can travel several hundred kilometers effortlessly across rough terrain¹¹. 

Wolves are classified as a keystone species. This means that animals and plants within the wolf’s habitat are dependent on the wolves' function as an apex predator in order to survive and thrive. As an apex predator, wolves are at the top of their food chain with humans, cougars, and bears (especially towards wolf pups) being their predators.

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Wolves are carnivores with their main prey being ungulates such as deer, elk, caribou, moose and bighorn sheep, but they are also known to hunt smaller prey such as beavers, grouse, and hares¹. Wolves residing on the coast of British Columbia, also known as sea wolves, have adapted their diet to capitalize on their marine environments to include food sources such as fish, sea otters and seals. Wolves will also eat fruit, scavenge leftover kills from other animals, and eat carrion if fresh prey is not readily available². 

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It is important to note that wolves do not kill an entire herd of prey, such as moose, caribou, or elk. Unlike humans, wolves kill for survival only, not for sport. The role of a wolf within its environment is to maintain a healthy balance between predator and prey within an ecosystem. A study conducted in Yellowstone National Park demonstrated how important wolves are. The study showed that after wolf reintroduction in the park, coyote populations were cut in half, elk became more vigilant, there was less river erosion, and scavengers (and their predators) had more feeding opportunities³. 

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Wolves are also essential to maintain healthy prey populations by primarily eating old, sick, weak or injured prey⁴. The health of a wolf population is dependent on the health of their prey². Less availability of prey, due to severe weather conditions or habitat changes, means less food available for wolves². This leads to a decrease in health for the wolf population, more wolves dying from conflicts with other wolves over food limitations, and fewer wolves generally surviving into adulthood³. Wolves eating entire prey populations would also result in the same outcome. Evidently, wolf numbers would decline before prey populations became eliminated². 

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A wolf will eat as much of their prey as they can, rarely wasting a meal. A sustainable diet for a wolf is an average of 2.5 to 7 lbs of meat per day but they can eat over 20 pounds in a single meal¹ ². However, it is not uncommon for wolves to go days or weeks without food. When a wolf does have a successful hunt, they will typically gorge on the meal and then rest while the food digests². Cache sites are used by wolves to store food for later. 

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A wolf has a bite capacity of 398 pounds of pressure per square inch which allows them to bite through animal hide and bones². In comparison, the bite capacity of a domestic dog is 320 pounds per square inch and a human is 120 pounds per square inch².

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A wolf’s diet is highly dependent on their ability to hunt successfully. Hunting is a high risk activity as only 3 in 20 (or 15%) of wolf hunts are successful and one wrong move can result in injury or death for the wolf⁵. Due to the necessity of the wolf’s need to hunt for food, a wolf will spend approximately a third of their lifetime hunting⁵. Each wolf has a specific role in a hunt. For instance, some wolves are tasked with chasing down prey while others are tasked with bringing the prey to the ground⁵. Roles are decided upon by the size, speed, knowledge, and capabilities of the individual wolf.

Wolves are social animals with complex social structures that form what is called ‘a wolf pack’.  A wolf pack is a wolf family which is formed when a solitary female pairs with a solitary male¹. Solitary wolves are ones that have dispersed from their own packs, either to join an existing pack or start their own. The typical age for a solitary wolf that disperses from its maternal pack is 2 to 3 years of age². Once a male and female join together to form their own pack, they become the breeding pair. A breeding wolf pair is historically called a dominant pair or ‘alpha’ pair. However, it is now more common to call an ‘alpha’ pair the leading, breeding, or parent pair of the pack³.  

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In essence, a wolf pack is a family composed of the breeding pair (the leading male and female of the pack), their offspring, and other non-breeding adults⁴. However, if there is an abundance of prey available in the wolf pack's territory, the parent breeding pair may allow other wolves to breed as well, this secondary breeding pair(s) is then called subordinate breeders¹ ⁵. 

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A wolf pack size is typically composed of 4 to 9 wolves, but pack size can range anywhere from 2 to 30². Larger packs would be mostly due to an abundance of prey populations. In this case, the wolf pack may split in order to allow an increase in hunting efficiency of the packs² ⁵.  If prey availability in a wolf pack’s territory is limited, wolf litter sizes may be smaller than normal to adjust to this⁶. The ability of a wolf pack’s litter size to change based on prey availability demonstrates a key survival adaptation of wolves. 

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All pack members are responsible for the survival of the pack, including helping to care for offspring (which is called allo-parenting) as well as hunting, teaching, and protecting the pack¹. The wolf family structure is maintained through displays of body language, scents, and vocalization which is explored further in the next topic (1.4 Wolf Communication)⁷ ⁸ ⁹. All wolves in a pack have unique personalities and relationships differ between family members. Regardless of their individual personalities, wolves cooperate with each other for the good of the family.

As with our own human families, communication is key in achieving and maintaining a harmonious wolf family in which all members can contribute and thrive¹. Most of the communication in a pack is done through body language. The wolf parents show confidence in their body language by holding their tails horizontally or high in the air and showing intensive scent-marking behaviour, including overmarking and scratching². Subordinate family members, such as juvenile wolves, show friendly and submissive body language to their parents².  Submissive behaviour in a juvenile, as it relates to asking for food, includes approaching an adult excitedly, wagging their tail, laying the ears flat, and licking the corner of the adult's mouth². In the instance of passive submission of a lower-ranking wolf, it may roll sideways on the ground allowing the higher-ranking wolves to sniff its body and genital area². In regards to scent-marking, lower-ranking wolves do not mark but the males will urinate with bent legs and females will squat with their genital area low to the ground². In both cases, large amounts of urine is emitted without the use of scraping and scratching². The submissive and friendly communication by lower-ranking wolves and juveniles is also important to maintain a friendly atmosphere amongst the pack². 

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Other displays of wolf body language used include¹ ³ ⁴:

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• When ears are up and teeth are bared, this may indicate fear or anger.
• A wolf with its ears flattened back against the head may indicate fear.
• Playfulness is shown by dancing and bowing, a low head and rump high, forelegs splayed with a wagging tail. Playing is helpful to teaching wolf pups hunting skills. 
• A curled lip, bared teeth, fixed stare and ears horizontal is a display of dominance and to stay away. 

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A wolf’s sense of smell is approximately 100 times greater than that of humans and is another key way for wolves to communicate with each other and neighbouring packs¹.  Due to the high level of sense of smell for wolves, urine and scat are important communicators. For instance, marking with urine and scat allows the leading breeding pair of a pack to signal when they are ready to mate. Marking by this pair is also a way for them to mark their territory and warn wolves outside of their pack to stay away⁴. 

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Each wolf has their own signature scent, including the smell of their urine, that others can recognize. Wolves also emit pheromones from glands on their toes, tail, eyes, anus, genitalia, and skin³. Scent rolling is used when a wolf wants to show off an important discovery such as food, prey, or something foreign that needs further investigation¹. 

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Vocalization is another way wolf packs communicate with one another. Wolves rarely bark, unless as an alert to their pack members. Instead, wolves whine or whimper to show frustration, anxiety or, at times, friendship and fondness⁴.  Growls and snarls can be threatening or defensive, may indicate a warning to the pack of intruders,  or be may be a display of dominance¹ ³ ⁴. 

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Probably the most infamous way for wolves to communicate is through howling. Howling has many different meanings and can vary in sound depending upon the reason the wolf or wolf pack is howling. Howls can be joyous indicating togetherness and the strong social bonds that a pack shares. When wolves howl together, it is called a “pack rally”. Wolves also howl when they are hunting, announcing their territory, and when they are ready to mate⁴. Howls are also a way to communicate over long distances, to locate each other, and to protect kill sites. 

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Wolves also howl to mourn the loss of a packmate. Due to the intense bonds wolves have with one another, when a packmate dies, wolves often become more solemn and show limited interest in play for a period of time. They will also often return to the location where their packmate died. Their solitary howl becomes mournful as they grieve for their lost family member¹ ⁴.

Wolves are monogamous and breed for life. However, if one member of the breeding pair becomes deceased, the surviving member may take a new mate. A female wolf reaches sexual maturity between 2 to 4 years of age and a male wolf reaches sexual maturity at around 10 months of age¹. A breeding pair will only breed once per year². Breeding pairs mate in the winter once the females come into estrus (her fertile period)¹. During the mating season, the breeding pair will copulate between 1 to 11 times. However, the breeding pair will court one another a few months prior to the female's fertility period¹. Courting behaviour between the pair includes close sleeping, following, nuzzling, parallel-walking, wrestling, sniffing, increased marking, body-rubbing, pawing, and cuddling¹.  

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With a gestation period of 60 to 65 days, wolf pups are born in springtime¹. Female wolves give birth in dens and their wolf pups are born blind and deaf¹. A typical litter size is 6 wolves but can range anywhere between 4 to 8. When born, a wolf pup weighs around 300 to 500 g (0.7 to 1.1 lbs)¹. A wolf pup is fed its mother’s milk until it is weaned between 5 to 9 weeks of age¹. Once it is weaned, the wolf pups are fed regurgitated meat that adult members of the wolf pack swallow and then bring back to the den³. At this time, the wolf pups will start moving away from using the den and will start to visit food cache and carcass sites with the other pack members¹. 

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A wolf pup is classified as a juvenile or subadult between the ages of 12 weeks to maturity¹. Once a wolf reaches maturity (around 2 years of age), it is classified as an adult. A wolf begins to hunt between 4 to 10 months of age and is fully grown between 12 and 14 months¹. A wolf may leave its natal pack as early as the age of 9 months¹. An adult is at peak hunting age until the age of 3¹. The average lifespan of a wild wolf varies, but is typically 2 years of age in areas where wolf hunting is allowed or 4.5 years in areas where wolf hunting is not allowed¹. That said, wolves can live up to 12 - 14 years of age⁴. Wolf mortality can happen for a variety of reasons including old age, human causes (such as hunting, wolf culling, poisoning, trapping, etc.), disease, injuries, and accidents¹.

As young children we are taught through stories, Hollywood movies, rural lore, and cultural beliefs that wolves are “deceitful and treacherous beasts that eat children”¹. The Boy Who Cried Wolf states how “the wolf killed a great many of the Boy's sheep and then slipped away into the forest”². In the Three Little Pigs, the wolf is described as “greedy”, “dancing about with rage”, and “opening his jaws very wide and biting down as hard as he could” to eat the three little pigs³. In the Little Red Riding Hood, the wolf is labeled as “a wicked creature” who tricks Little Red Riding Hood after feasting on her grandmother⁴. Evidently, these childhood stories have depicted wolves as being evil and cunning tricksters that eat children, kill livestock, and leave wreckage everywhere they go. So how exactly did wolves, the ancestors to our beloved pet dogs, become so hated and feared?

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In historic civilizations, there is evidence that wolves were valued. There are indications that people formed a bond with wolves based on mutual respect. Wolves helped people track prey and people, in return, fed the wolves with scraps from their kill. There is a 33,000 year old skull that was found in Siberia that is believed to be an early domestic dog¹. Footprints of a dog walking next to a child, thought to be 26,000 years old, were found in the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc cave in France¹. In Norse culture, wolves displayed both good and evil traits but were also a symbol of bravery in battle¹.

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In Rome, there is a myth that twin boys were raised by wolves and later became leaders of a city¹.  Wolves were viewed differently than other predators. For instance, wolves were not introduced to Roman arenas and were not kept in zoos. Romans may have felt that it was “taboo” to hunt a wolf⁵. Wolves were not considered a threat in early times, just part of nature as a whole⁵. Coexistence with wolves was also important in Rome. Shepherds in Rome used protective measures with wolves by using domesticated white dogs with spiked collars to help protect and guard their flocks against wolves and other predators⁵.

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The change in attitude towards wolves can be linked to two main factors: religion and war⁵. Some religions preached a view that life should be separate from nature and viewed themselves as God-like shepherds who protected their flock¹ ⁵. Wolves, known to feed on sheep and cattle, started to be viewed as the devil and became known as the false profit in the Bible⁵. 

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The Europeans had a great fear of witchcraft, pagan men and half-man half-wolf beasts in the forests that killed and ate livestock and people at night. Myths began to arise, the werewolf was born and people believed that a face-to-face encounter with a wolf would cause them to lose their voice⁵ ⁶. Wolves became connected to evil and violence, and fairy tales of cunning and deceitful wolves began to be told and handed down from generation to generation⁶.

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War also affected people’s attitudes towards wolves. Studies of 3 wars, the Hundred Years’ War in France (1337-1453), the Thirty Years’ War in Germany (1618-1648) and Cromwell’s invasion of Ireland (1649-1653), demonstrated a link between the growth of wolf populations and increased attacks on people⁵. Often the dead from these wars were left unburied or put in shallow graves providing easy access for wolves to feed on the corpses. Although this was an unique situation, it did contribute to increased attacks on people as wolves grew in numbers and became accustomed to eating human flesh⁵. The views of religion and the effects that war had on wolves created a fear that sometimes bordered on hysteria that still remains.

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Today, wolves are very controversial and are either loved or loathed. Many still believe in the wolf depicted in fairy tales and horror stories, evil and savage beings that are worthy only to be killed for sport or a nuisance that can only be managed through death (i.e. through trapping, culling, hunting. etc.)¹. Those who hate wolves are opposed to government regulations that favour wolves. This includes listing wolves as an Endangered or protected species, having hunting and trapping restrictions implemented, or re-establishing wolf populations in areas where they have become extirpated⁶. Some view wolves as numbers on a page, scientific data to be managed and monitored.  

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For those who love wolves, they have become spiritual guides. Wolves are honoured in many Indigenous cultures for their strong social bonds and hunting techniques. Others view wolves, not as evil, spiritual or as data, but as social and sentient beings who are devoted to their pack members. Beings that are able to communicate, teach and express emotion with each other. Beings who respect and care for each other, contribute to the pack each in their own unique way and are valued for their role in nature¹.

Below are several quick and interesting facts that you can use to help teach others about wolves.

• Our family dogs descended from wolves, and many wolf traits have been passed down to our canine companions. Wolf traits, such as being territorial, can be found in dogs that guard our families, livestock and property; the wolf’s superior sense of smell and ability to locate prey can be seen in tracking and retrieving dogs; the ability to maneuver large herds of grazing animals is shown in our herding dogs; and a wolf’s devotion to its pack, its ability to learn, communicate and be social, are found in our beloved family dogs¹.
• Wolf-human conflicts and predation are extremely rare in today’s society. There have been no confirmed fatal wolf attacks in Canada in the past 100 years. In 2005, there was a fatal attack on a person in Saskatchewan,² however, it was unclear what animal caused the fatal attack. Between 2000 to 2020, there have only been 4 wolf-related injuries toward humans². These injuries were a result of the wolf being either provoked, habituated to humans, caught off guard, or rabid².  
• Although it is often stated that wolves attack and kill a lot of livestock resulting in high economic costs for ranchers, the reality is that, on average, wolves are actually only responsible for approximately 0.2% of livestock depredation³. 
• It is a common misconception that declining elk populations are because of wolf depredation. On the contrary, research has found that elk populations have increased with the reintroduction of wolves in Wyoming, Montana, and Yellowstone³ ⁴. It has also been found that the elk have become more alert and difficult to hunt because of the wolf’s presence¹.
• Many feel that the presence of wolves is an increasing problem and should be removed entirely from the ecosystem. Wolves are essential for healthy and balanced ecosystems. In areas where wolves have been eradicated, ungulate populations can increase significantly. This causes imbalances in the ecosystem as ungulates overgraze the land and strip other animals of their food and homes⁴. 
• Some believe wolves hunt for sport. In reality, wolves will only hunt for the food they need to feed their pack. The hunting success rate for wolves is only about 14%⁴. With such a low rate of success, wolves simply do not have the energy to waste to kill for sport. Hunting is also very dangerous for wolves, as one kick from an elk could result in injury or death⁴. 
• It is very rare to see a wolf. Coyotes and large dogs are often thought to be wolves, but wolves prefer to stay away from people in most instances, particularly in areas where they are hunted or shot at.
• Wolves live in family packs. They have strong family bonds that resemble those of human families. Examples of other animals who have similar family bonds include:
  • Dolphins. Dolphins live in pods that consist of hundreds of individuals. Dolphins, like wolves, can communicate with each other and learn from one another. They recognize other members in their pod as unique individuals. Dolphins have better success hunting in their pods as they surround their prey, pushing them towards shallow water where they can feast⁵.‍
  • Wild horses. Horses are very social and live in herds of up to approximately 130 horses. The herd is broken up into approximately 25 harems. Each harem has an alpha stallion, its mares, possibly a beta stallion, and their foals. Horses have a social order and teach each other how to behave. The alpha stallion ensures the safety of his mares and is the first to investigate unfamiliar territory or possible threats to his harem⁶.

It is thought that wolves interact with ravens more so than any other species, except other wolves of course. The wolf-raven relationship is an ancient one. Among many different cultures throughout the world, wolves and ravens have both historically held very high spiritual stations. In fact, ravens are known as “wolf birds” because of the historic and important relationships between wolves and ravens. For instance, Norse mythology indicated that seeing a wolf and raven together was a good omen that signified success in an upcoming battle. The Cree explain the creation of earth using the relationship between wolves and ravens. There is a Coast Salish story that goes¹: 

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“A wolf pup that transforms into a raven to help his mom hunt during long winters. When spring comes, the Creator makes the transformation permanent. To this day, you can hear the wolf family calling out to say goodnight to the raven that watches over them.” 

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The social intelligence of the wolf-raven relationship is not to be underestimated. Scientists studying the wolf-raven relationship in Yellowstone National Park noted that ravens were present in 86.5% of wolf sightings². Since ravens have a bird’s eye view, they can easily spot injured and helpless prey and will call their wolf pack in by circling overhead or with loud and intentional vocalizations². Ravens have been observed swooping down and pulling on a wolf’s tail to get their attention and lead them to a possible next meal. Ravens may also communicate to wolves the presence of a carcass by making lots of noise and flocking together in masses which is called an "unkindness".

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A raven relies on a wolf to open a carcass for it so that it can access the meat inside that they themselves discovered². During feedings, ravens remain alert and notify the wolf of any dangers nearby and scavenge any leftover meat. Everyone wins, including many other creatures such as eagles, bears, coyotes, large cats, and other scavengers that may eat the leftovers². This is especially helpful in winter when survival is more difficult. 

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Where there are wolves, there are ravens, and they are known to form strong social bonds with each other. Occasionally, a raven will bond with a young wolf through play and teasing and will follow that animal throughout its life journey³. In captivity, ravens have been observed befriending specific wolves and bringing them food offerings and gifts. They have play sessions, share food (if the wolf approves) and some even have a social relationship with a certain wolf, even distracting them with a scavenged bone. If you spend time outdoors, especially on hiking trails and in the backcountry, it may prove beneficial to learn the language of ravens for they can inform you of what is happening around you. 

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The following resources are helpful if you are looking to learn more about ravens.

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• Article: Speaking Raven: Learning The Subtleties of Raven Language
• Video: Ravens, Wolves, and People by Dr. John Marzluff
• Video: Rendezvous with the Raven: Exploring Connections Among the Trickster, Wolves, and People
• Article: An Unlikely Friendship: The Relationship Between Wolves and Ravens
• Book: Bird Brains: The Intelligence of Crows, Ravens, Magpies, and Jays
• Study: Dog and human from Raven's perspective: An interpretation of Raven myths of Alaskan Athabascans
• Children's Book: Strong Stories Coast Salish: Why Ravens and Wolves Hunt Together
• Children’s Book: The Wolf Birds‍
• Children’s Book: The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Rewilding Story